Based on the evidence, Solar Radiation Management is far too risky to consider as any kind of solution to climate change:

• Injecting sulphur into the stratosphere could disrupt vital monsoon rains in Asia and Africa, endangering food supplies for billions
• It would do nothing to stop ocean acidification which threatens marine life
• It would have to be maintained indefinitely, with potentially catastrophic impacts if stopped
• It could reduce the effectiveness of solar power
• There are too many unknowns around regional impacts to ever safely test or deploy

We must reject this kind of dangerous techno-optimism and focus instead on the proven solutions of cutting emissions and transitioning to renewable energy. Protecting people and the planet is incompatible with the risksof geoengineering.

Section: 2, Chapter: 8

Author: Naomi Klein

The invention of the coal-powered steam engine in the late 18th century was critical to enabling European colonialism and the expansion of slavery. Steam power allowed Europe to penetrate into the interiors of colonized continents. Steamships carried slaves and looted raw materials.

The mentality of the colonial extractive economy saw nature as an unlimited input to production and human beings as expendable cogs in the machine. These attitudes were embodied in the brutal plantation economies of the Americas powered by slave labor and the rapacious commodity extraction across the global South. The dawn of fossil fuel-powered capitalism went hand in hand with the racist ideology that entire peoples and regions of the earth were disposable.

Section: 1, Chapter: 5

Author: Naomi Klein

This chapter argues that one of the most powerful tools to combat fossil fuel extraction and climate change is the vigorous assertion of Indigenous land rights. Around the world, many of the planet's last untapped fossil fuel reserves are on Indigenous territory - and so too are many of the best sites for renewables like wind and solar.

By fighting to protect their traditional lands and ways of life, Indigenous peoples are on the front lines of the climate fight. However, they need much more support and solidarity from allies to have a fighting chance against massive fossil fuel corporations intent on steamrolling their rights.

Section: 3, Chapter: 11

Author: Naomi Klein

In the blink of a geological eye, humans have become the dominant force shaping the planet. Through habitat alteration, overhunting, species introductions, and climate change, we are transforming environments at unprecedented rates. This outsized impact has led some scientists to propose a new geological epoch: the Anthropocene -

• Widespread land transformation for agriculture and settlements
• Damming and diversion of most major rivers
• Doubling of natural nitrogen and phosphorus cycles through fertilizer use
• Human use of over half of readily available freshwater
• Rising greenhouse gas levels driving global climate change

These signatures will be detectable in the geological record for eons to come, making the Anthropocene a turning point in Earth's history.

Section: 1, Chapter: 5

Author: Elizabeth Kolbert

The current rate of species extinction is estimated to be 100 to 1000 times higher than the background extinction rate, which is about 0.1 extinctions per million species per year. Amphibians have been hit especially hard, with an extinction rate as much as 45,000 times the background rate. This means we are likely in the midst of the sixth mass extinction in Earth's history, this time primarily caused by human activities. Species are disappearing so fast that biologists feel they are "running through a museum and knowing that the collection's on fire."

Section: 1, Chapter: 1

Author: Elizabeth Kolbert

In the Amazon, intricate ecological relationships have evolved over millennia, with each species adapted to a specific temperature niche. But as the climate warms, these niches are shifting upslope. On the forested slopes of Peru's Manú National Park, research by ecologist Miles Silman reveals that trees are migrating to higher elevations at surprising speeds.

But there's a catch - not all species are moving at the same pace. Certain trees like Schefflera are racing upward, while others like Alzatea are staying put. This variable response means that entire forest communities are unlikely to successfully migrate intact. Instead, ancient ecological relationships are being torn apart, leaving networks of interdependent species vulnerable to collapse.

Section: 1, Chapter: 8

Author: Elizabeth Kolbert

This chapter introduces the concept of "Blockadia" - the grassroots resistance movements rising up to directly challenge fossil fuel extraction in their communities. From First Nations battling tar sands pipelines and coal mines in Canada, to Greek villagers protesting gold mining, to Pacific Islanders blockading coal ports in Australia, to French farmers fighting fracking, these Blockadia struggles are building a global network of resistance. They are driven not by traditional environmentalism but a desire for self-determination and to protect their ways of life from destruction.

Section: 3, Chapter: 9

Author: Naomi Klein

Darwin recognized some species went extinct suddenly, like the great auk and ammonites. But wedded to Lyell's gradualism, he argued the apparent abruptness merely reflected gaps in the fossil record. Extinctions actually occurred slowly, through competition in the "struggle for existence."

However, as evidence of human-caused extinctions accumulated, a paradox emerged. How could humans overturn the "natural" pace of extinction? It implied either 1) people were unbound by nature's laws, having a "special status," or 2) catastrophic extinctions did occur, meaning Cuvier was right. Darwin sidestepped this problematic conclusion, even as he chronicled human-caused extinctions like the Charles Island tortoise.

Section: 1, Chapter: 3

Author: Elizabeth Kolbert

"Such is the power of the human enterprise. In a very short time, we have managed to change the composition of the atmosphere and the chemistry of the oceans, and to ravage the biosphere. Having freed ourselves from the constraints of evolution, humans nevertheless remain dependent on the earth's biological and geochemical systems. By disrupting these systems - cutting down tropical rainforests, altering the composition of the atmosphere, acidifying the oceans - we're putting our own survival in danger. ... Right now, in the amazing moment that to us counts as the present, we are deciding, without quite meaning to, which evolutionary pathways will remain open and which will forever be closed. No other creature has ever managed this, and it will, unfortunately, be our most enduring legacy."

Section: 1, Chapter: 13

Author: Elizabeth Kolbert

Levitt and Dubner are skeptical that carbon mitigation alone can slow global warming. They argue:

• Current technologies like wind/solar are too expensive and limited to replace fossil fuels
• Developing countries like China and India will keep burning coal to fuel growth
• Even aggressive carbon cuts will have modest impact due to CO2's long atmospheric life

The authors compare carbon mitigation to "bringing a garden hose to a fight against a forest fire." They believe more aggressive solutions will be needed alongside emission reductions to meaningfully move the needle. While not discounting the value of conservation, Levitt and Dubner argue it is not a complete solution.

Section: 1, Chapter: 5

Author: Steven D. Levitt , Stephen J. Dubner

Groups like the Heartland Institute that promote climate change denial clearly get major funding from wealthy interests like the Koch brothers and ExxonMobil. But beyond just protecting the profits of fossil fuel companies, the climate denial movement crucially serves to protect the interests of the wealthy in general.

If climate change is real, it will require substantial new taxes and regulations on corporations and the rich to pay for the necessary economic transformations. By denying climate change, the wealthy can continue to enjoy their privilege without being asked to sacrifice or change. The anti-tax, anti-regulation climate denial movement provides an intellectual shield for the elites' material interests.

Section: 1, Chapter: 1

Author: Naomi Klein

The dominant ideological trend of the last several decades - the global triumph of free market fundamentalism (often called neoliberalism) - occurred at the very worst time from a climate perspective. Just when governments needed to intervene decisively to restructure economies away from fossil fuels, they were instead ceding more and more power to the market.

Key pillars of the free market revolution like privatization, deregulation, and corporate free trade deals acted at cross-purposes with the need for government planning to tackle emissions. Fossil fuel companies gained the freedom to pursue ever-riskier sources of carbon such as fracking. Instead of public ownership and planning for a clean energy transition, the energy sector was privatized and deregulated.

Section: 1, Chapter: 2

Author: Naomi Klein

Before the push for free trade and globalization, global emissions growth had been slowing - from 4.5% annual increases in the 1960s to about 1% a year in the 1990s. But emissions exploded in the 2000s after global trade barriers came down, shooting up to 3.4% growth per year in 2000-2008, well above previous projections.

Globalization enabled the rise of global manufacturing centered in China, the "factory to the world." As multinational corporations scoured the globe for the cheapest labor costs, they set off a coal boom in China to power all the new production. There proved to be an inextricable link between the exploitation of cheap labor and the exploitation of cheap, dirty energy. Emissions were effectively outsourced from rich consumer countries to developing manufacturing countries.

Section: 1, Chapter: 2

Author: Naomi Klein

For centuries, the natural world was defined by the geographic isolation of continents and islands. Distinctive plants and animals evolved in seclusion, cut off from their relatives by oceans and mountain ranges. Darwin saw this as a key driver of speciation.

But human transportation has shattered these barriers. Organisms that could never have spread beyond their native ranges are crossing the planet as stowaways in ship ballast, air cargo, and luggage. The rate of species invasions is skyrocketing, with a new introduced species establishing somewhere in the world every 9 days. These invaders are homogenizing ecosystems, driving natives extinct, and fundamentally rewiring food webs. The result is a New Pangaea, a world where ancient evolutionary divisions no longer apply.

Section: 1, Chapter: 10

Author: Elizabeth Kolbert

Many governments promote natural gas as a "bridge fuel" to transition from coal to renewable energy. In theory, gas has lower emissions than coal when burned. However, the chapter argues that in practice, under current economic models, gas will not serve as a bridge to clean energy but rather as an impediment.

For gas to be a true bridge, there would need to be strictly enforced regulations to ensure it only substitutes for coal and doesn't displace renewables. And gas extraction would need to be phased out completely within a couple decades - an approach incompatible with the business models of private gas companies. As long as the profit motive dominates, gas companies will keep expanding and delaying the needed transition.

Section: 1, Chapter: 3

Author: Naomi Klein

This chapter explores the concept of "climate debt" - the idea that the rich countries who have benefited the most from burning fossil fuels owe a debt to the poorer countries now suffering the worst impacts of climate change. It looks at specific cases like Ecuador's Yasuni initiative to keep oil in the ground in exchange for foreign aid. And it grapples with the challenges of getting wealthy nations to pay up in an era of austerity and climate denial. Ultimately, the chapter argues that the same extractive logic that ravaged Indigenous lands and developing countries is now destabilizing the whole world - and only a true "Marshall Plan for the Earth" based on justice and reparations offers a way out.

Section: 3, Chapter: 12

Author: Naomi Klein

The introduction argues that climate change changes everything. It calls into question the fundamental economic logic that has governed our societies for decades - the pursuit of endless economic growth fueled by fossil fuels. To truly rise to the challenge of the climate crisis, we will need to dispense with this worldview that sees nature as a bottomless vending machine of resources to exploit. It will require remaking our economies and ways of life in profound ways. The author hopes the climate crisis can be a catalyst for positive economic and social transformation.

Section: 1, Chapter: 1

Author: Naomi Klein

Excess CO2 from fossil fuel burning is not just warming the climate - it's also drastically changing ocean chemistry. When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic acid, lowering the pH. The oceans are now 30% more acidic than in pre-industrial times, and on track to be 150% more acidic by 2100. This acidification makes it harder for calcifying organisms like corals, oysters, and pteropods to build their skeletons and shells. It can even cause shells to dissolve.

Studies at natural CO2 seeps, which act as "windows into the future," show the potentially catastrophic impacts. Reefs near seeps are dominated by weedy algae, with corals and other calcifiers almost entirely absent. Ocean acidification rivals global warming as a threat to marine life, and has been a key driver of several past mass extinctions.

Section: 1, Chapter: 6

Author: Elizabeth Kolbert

The final chapter argues that responding to the climate crisis is not just about stopping the fossil fuel economy but also about building a new regenerative economy in its place. It looks at real-world examples of communities restoring ecosystems, growing local food systems, democratizing energy production, and creating a culture of caretaking rather than extraction.

Drawing on Indigenous teachings about the duty to protect life for future generations, the chapter calls for a paradigm shift from dominance to reciprocity, from fragmentation to connection, from scarcity to abundance. Moving from extraction to renewal, it concludes, is our only chance to leave our children a world worth inheriting.

Section: 3, Chapter: 13

Author: Naomi Klein

This chapter highlights some key victories and promising strategies of the climate movement so far. It covers the growing fossil fuel divestment campaign, which has challenged the social license of the industry. It looks at the successful fights to stop major pipeline and fracking projects through unlikely alliances. And it examines how some governments, under pressure from activists, are starting to ban extreme energy extraction and divest public funds. The chapter argues that by asserting the primacy of democratic rights over corporate power, the climate movement is beginning to notch significant wins against the odds.

Section: 3, Chapter: 10

Author: Naomi Klein

This chapter examines how the climate movement has often put misplaced hope in wealthy philanthropists and "green billionaires" to finance the transition to sustainability. But despite grand pledges, figures like Richard Branson, Bill Gates, Warren Buffett and Michael Bloomberg continue to invest heavily in fossil fuels. They propose risky high-tech solutions like geoengineering and carbon capture rather than simply cutting emissions now.

No matter how well-intentioned, depending on voluntary pledges from benevolent elites is an utterly insufficient response to the climate crisis - only mass people-powered movements can overcome fossil fuel interests.

Section: 2, Chapter: 7

Author: Naomi Klein

Levitt and Dubner argue that much of the conventional wisdom about global warming is misguided or overly simplistic. They challenge several widely-held beliefs:

• Claim: Hundreds of millions could die from global warming. Reality: Even extreme warming scenarios project far fewer deaths.
• Claim: Carbon dioxide is the key driver of rising temperatures. Reality: Water vapor and other factors play a larger role.
• Claim: Warming will cause devastating sea level rise. Reality: Most models project a manageable 1-2 foot rise by 2100.
• Claim: Warming will cause more extreme weather. Reality: Evidence is mixed, some areas may see fewer hurricanes.

The authors argue many activists overstate the risks and understate the uncertainty in climate projections. They worry hyperbolic doomsaying could lead to panicked decision-making rather than level-headed problem-solving.

Section: 1, Chapter: 5

Author: Steven D. Levitt , Stephen J. Dubner

Klein delves into the disturbing world of proposed geoengineering "solutions" to climate change, with a focus on Solar Radiation Management (SRM) - i.e. injecting sulphur dioxide particles into the stratosphere to dim the sun's rays. The author attends a Royal Society conference on regulating geoengineering research, where proponents gloss over the huge risks - disrupting rainfall patterns, damaging the ozone layer, ocean acidification, etc. - while opponents argue it treats the symptoms not causes of climate change. The chapter warns that geoengineering is a dangerous distraction from the proven solution of rapidly cutting emissions.

Section: 2, Chapter: 8

Author: Naomi Klein

This chapter discusses how many large environmental organizations have compromised their values and effectiveness by partnering with and taking money from the very fossil fuel companies most responsible for climate change. Groups like the Environmental Defense Fund, The Nature Conservancy, and the Sierra Club have at times supported natural gas fracking, carbon trading schemes, and other false solutions that allow fossil fuel extraction to continue largely unabated. This is contrasted with the more confrontational grassroots groups fighting fossil fuel infrastructure in their communities.

Section: 2, Chapter: 6

Author: Naomi Klein

This chapter argues that climate change is a symptom of a deeper ideological pathology: extractivism. This worldview sees the earth as a resource to be exploited rather than as a living ecosystem on which we depend.

Extractivism is based on the fallacy that the earth's capacity to absorb pollution and provide resources is limitless - that there will always be more frontiers to exploit. It treats entire regions and peoples as disposable "sacrifice zones." And it denies the reality of natural limits to growth.

The climate crisis calls into question this entire worldview. It makes clear that the earth's capacity to absorb our pollution is very finite. A true climate solution will require a fundamental ideological shift to an ethic of nurturing natural systems rather than endlessly extracting from them.

Section: 1, Chapter: 5

Author: Naomi Klein

The oceans have absorbed about a third of the CO2 humans have emitted, causing rapid acidification. This process impairs the ability of marine organisms, especially corals, to build their calcium carbonate skeletons and shells. At natural CO2 seeps off the Italian island of Castello Aragonese, the impact is clear. Reefs near the seeps are graveyards, with corals and other calcifiers replaced by seaweed.

As the oceans continue to acidify, entire reef ecosystems could collapse worldwide. Coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef has already declined by 50% in recent decades. Ocean acidification, combined with warming water temperatures, is pushing corals and countless other species toward a bleak future.

Section: 1, Chapter: 7

Author: Elizabeth Kolbert